Sprawl and Health

Frank 2006 - "Many Pathways from Land Use to Health"

Lawrence D. Frank, James F. Sallis, et al.
"Many Pathways from Land Use to Health"
Journal of the American Planning Association
72(1):75-87 (Winter 2006)
On the Web
Relevance: high

From the abstract: in King County neighborhoods and found that a 5% increase in walkability was associated with:

• a per capita 32.1% increase in time spent in physical activity
• 0.23 point reduction in average body mass index
• 6.5% fewer vehicle miles traveled
• 5.6% fewer grams of nitrogen oxides emitted
• 5.5% fewer grams of volatile organic compounds emitted

See study for more details.

Washington Dept. of Ecology 2004 - "The Economic Benefits of Clean Air

Washington Dept. of Ecology
"The Economic Benefits of Clean Air"
Created Sept 2002, updated June 2004
Publication number 02-02-011
On the Web
Relevance: medium

The Washington State Department of Ecology says that

• “Washington citizens save over $2 billion per year in health costs because the air is cleaner now than it was in 1990.”
• “Washington businesses save at least $17 million per year because cleaner air means fewer lost workdays or lost productivity due to illness caused by air pollution, according to EPA.”
• “Based on EPA estimates of cancer risks and measured pollution levels in Washington, [levels] of 11 high risk Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs) […] may result in as many as 30 cancer cased per year in Washington that would not otherwise have occurred. The cost of medical treatment alone for these is about $3,000,000.” 

It also estimates that if central Puget Sound and Clark county returned to ozone non-attainment, it would cost businesses $253 million for required cleaner gasoline and additional pollution controls.  In central Puget Sound it would also cost consumers about $10 million a year (1 penny per gallon) for required cleaner gasoline. In addition, we would lose local control over clean air strategies.

(Note that these estimates cover all air pollution, including industrial emissions and agricultural burning.)

Frank 2005 - "A Study of Land Use, Transportation, Air Quality, and Health (LUTAQH) in King County, WA: Executive Summary"

Frank, Lawrence (Lawrence Frank & Company, Inc.)
"A Study of Land Use, Transportation, Air Quality, and Health (LUTAQH) in King County, WA: Executive Summary"
September 27, 2005, Submitted to King County officials.
Relevance: high
On the Web (big pdf)

NOTE: The following summary includes only the sections of this report that deal with air quality and vehicle emissions.

The study examined per capita VOC and NOx emissions from both automobile and transit trips. It uses a variety of measures to classify urban, suburban and other land uses. Urban land uses are responsible for much lower air pollution, on a per capita basis, than suburban land uses. Interestingly, the strongest correlate to lower per capita emissions is “street connectivity.”

• “Significantly lower estimates for NOx were generated by respondents living in areas with higher levels of retail floor area ratio, intersection density, and land use mix and residential density. Increased street connectivity where people live appeared to be the most closely associated with NOx. Mean emissions of NOx declined from 29 to 23 grams per person per day, a 26 percent reduction, between residents of the most to the least connected environments.”
• “Significantly lower levels of VOC’s were found for respondents in areas with higher levels of floor area ratio and intersection density and residential density. Improvements to street connectivity where people lived appeared to be the most effective tool to reduce VOC’s as well. Mean emissions of VOC’s declined from 14 to 12 grams per person per day, a 7 percent reduction, for residents of the most to least connected environments.”

Larson 2004 - "Source Apportionment of Indoor, Outdoor, and Personal PM2.5 in Seattle, Washington, Using Positive Matrix Factorization"

Larson, Timothy Gould, Timothy; et al.
"Source Apportionment of Indoor, Outdoor, and Personal PM2.5 in Seattle, Washington, Using Positive Matrix Factorization"
Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association
September 2004, v.54, n.9; pp.1175-1187
On the Web
Relevance: medium

The authors measured indoor, outdoor, and personal concentrations of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in the city of Seattle and estimated the sources of this PM. They concluded that vegetative burning (wood, incense, candles) contributed the most PM mass to outdoor (35%), indoor (49%), and personal (62%) exposure. In general, it seems that PM concentrations are higher outdoors than indoors.

PSCAA 2003 - "Final Report: Puget Sound Air Toxics Evaluation"

Keill, Leslie; Maykut, Naydene
"Final Report: Puget Sound Air Toxics Evaluation"
Puget Sound Clean Air Agency and Washington State Department of Ecology
October 2003
On the Web
Relevance: high

In this preliminary study, PSCAA measured and modeled exposure to outdoor air toxics in 6 locations around western King County, including Beacon Hill, Lake Sammamish, and Seatac. They estimated cancer risk using several methods, including one that takes into account commuting. They also seem to suggest that it may not matter much what macroenvironment you live in (i.e., Beacon Hill vs. Lake Sammammish): "Concentrations, and corresponding risks, were relatively consistent among areas measured and modeled throughout the Puget Sound region. Although some differences were apparent, overall it is clear that the sites and the region as a whole have similar emission sources of concern (e.g., diesel particulate matter, mobile-source-related VOCs, and probably woodsmoke)." Smaller geographical scale factors (busy road, factory, cleaning products) are not accounted for.

Davies 2005 - "Economic Costs of Diseases and Disabilities Attributable to Environmental Contaminants in Washington State"

Davies, Kate; Hauge, Dietrich.
"Economic Costs of Diseases and Disabilities Attributable to Environmental Contaminants in Washington State"
Collaborative for Health and Environment-Washington Research and Information Working Group
July 2005
On the Web
Relevance: low

The authors estimated the health costs attributable to environmental contaminants in Washington (for selected diseases) by applying national and other state studies to Washington's population. They use national estimates of the Environmentally Attributable Fraction Range (EAFR) of diseases due to contaminants, disease and population rates for Washington, and disease cost estimates. They conclude that the total cost is $1.8 billion (2004$) for children and $2.7 billion for adults and children.

Unfortunately, this study does not really estimate the costs for Washington, but rather Washington's likely share of national costs because the study uses national attribution rates rather than WA specific ones.  For example, it may be that a higher or lower fraction of asthma in WA is due to environmental contaminants.

WA Dept. of Health 2004 - "The Economic Cost of Physical Inactivity Among Washington State Adults"

Chenoweth & Associates, Inc.
"The Economic Cost of Physical Inactivity Among Washington State Adults"
Washington State Department of Health
February 2004
On the Web (pdf)
Relevance: high

Chenoweth and Associates estimate the direct costs of physical inactivity in Washington to be $4.8 billion in 2002:

• $197.8 million for direct medical care
• $9.2 million for worker's compensation
• $4600 million for lost productivity

They also calculate the indirect costs at $593 million for medical care and $36.8 million for worker's compensation, bringing the total cost (direct + indirect) to $5.46 billion. Per Washington resident, this total cost of physical inactivity was $899 in 2002; per Washington adult, the cost was $1,232.

Rivara 1989 - “Analysis of Fatal Pedestrian Injuries in King County, WA and Prospects for Prevention”

Rivara FP, Reay DT, Bergman AB.
“Analysis of Fatal Pedestrian Injuries in King County, WA and Prospects for Prevention”
Public Health Reports
May-June 1989; v.104, n.3; pp.293-297.
On the Web
Relevance: medium

The authors analyzed pedestrian fatalities for 12 months in King County, WA.  They found that victims were generally children (29%), the elderly (34%), or intoxicated adults (24%).

Harruff 1998 - “Analysis of Circumstances and Injuries in 217 Pedestrian Traffic Fatalities”

Harruff RC, Avery A, Alter-Pandya AS.
“Analysis of Circumstances and Injuries in 217 Pedestrian Traffic Fatalities”
Accident Analysis and Prevention
January 1998; v.30,n.1; pp.11-20
On the Web
Relevance: high

Harruff et al analyzed 217 pedestrian fatalities in King County, WA to describe the most common situations and characteristics of pedestrian fatalities.  The average annual pedestrian fatality rate for all pedestrians overstates the risk for responsible, able-bodied adults but understates the risk for vulnerable groups such as the elderly.  Alcohol consumption, disregard of traffic rules, and being male also increase the fatality risk. 

Frank 2000 - "Linking land use with household vehicle emissions in the central Puget Sound"

Frank, Lawrence, Brian Stone Jr., and William Bachman. 2000.
"Linking Land Use with Household Vehicle Emissions in the Central Puget Sound: Methodological Framework and Findings."
2000, Transportation Research Part D 5, 3: 173-96.
On the web
Relevance: high

Frank and colleagues used data from the Puget Sound Transportation Panel (a survey of 1,700 households taken every 2 years) to estimate the total amount of vehicle pollution (carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and volatile organic compounds) generated by households in different kinds of neighborhoods.

They concluded that households in higher-density neighborhoods, with more interconnected street grids, and with greater mixes of land use, produced lower total emissions than households in more sprawling neighborhoods.  Also, as might be expected, long-distance commutes increased total household vehicle emissions.  Perhaps more surprisingly, commutes to places with very high employment density (e.g., downtowns) were associated with lower total household vehicle emissions -- though this effect that was seen mostly for the places with the densest employment.