Sprawl and Health

Friedman 2001 - "Impact of Changes in Transportation and Commuting Behaviors During the 1996 Summer Olympic Games in Atlanta on Air Quality and Childhood Asthma"

Friedman, Michael S; Powell, Kenneth E; et al.
"Impact of Changes in Transportation and Commuting Behaviors During the 1996 Summer Olympic Games in Atlanta on Air Quality and Childhood Asthma"
Journal of the American Medical Association
February 21, 2001; vol.285, n.7; pp.897-905.
On the Web
Relevance: low

The authors compared the level of air pollution and asthma events during the Atlanta Olympics to levels just before and after. They found that ozone levels and asthma events were lower during the Oympics, likely due to changes in traffic patterns. The number of asthma acute care events decreased 41.6% in the Georgia Medicaid claims file.  Organizers increased public transportation, closed the downtown to cars, encouraged workers to change work hours, and made other adjustments. There are several caveats to this study, so we may not want to quote it alone, but it could be one building block of the case.

Adams 2001 - "Determinants of Fine Particle (PM2.5) Personal Exposure Levels in Transport Microenvironments, London, UK"

Adams, HS; Nieuwenhuijsen, MJ; Colvile, RN
"Determinants of Fine Particle (PM2.5) Personal Exposure Levels in Transport Microenvironments, London, UK"
Atmospheric Environment
September 2001 v.35, n.27; pp.4557-4566
On the Web
Relevance: medium-low

The authors measured concentrations of fine PM on fixed routes using different modes (car, bus, bicycle) in London. They found that route was a significant factor, explaining 20% of the variation, but mode was not. Wind speed explained 18% of the variation. "Personal exposure levels were reasonable correlated with urban background FSM [fixed site monitor] concentrations."

Ewing 2002 - "Measuring Sprawl and Its Impact"

Ewing, Reid; Pendall, Rolf; Chen, Don
"Measuring Sprawl and Its Impact"
Smart Growth America
2002
On the Web
Relevance: high

Ewing et al. created a sprawl index for ~83 metropolitan areas, incorporating density, land use mix, centeredness, and street accessibility. The authors also estimated the impact of sprawl on various transportation-related outcomes. They found that a higher degree of sprawl is associated with higher average vehicle ownership, daily VMT per capita, annual traffic fatality rate, and maximum ozone level; more sprawl was associated with a lower share of work trips by transit and walking. Note that, as with most sprawl studies, we can't assume a causal relationship.

Chertok 2004 - “Comparison of Air Pollution Exposure for Five Commuting Modes in Sydney – Car, Train, Bus, Bicycle and Walking”

Chertok, Michael ; Voukelatos, Alexander ; Sheppeard, Vicky ; and Rissel, Chris
“Comparison of Air Pollution Exposure for Five Commuting Modes in Sydney – Car, Train, Bus, Bicycle and Walking”
Health Promotion Journal of Australia
April 2004; v.15,n.1; pp.63-67
On the Web (pdf)
Relevance: high

The study measured the BTEX pollutant and NO2 exposure of 44 subjects on their regular daily commutes, each lasting at least 30 minutes each way.  Car commuters were exposed to the highest levels of BTEX pollutants, while bus commuters were exposed to the highest levels of NO2.  Train (light and heavy rail) commuters were exposed to the lowest levels of all pollutants measured.  Walking and cycling commuters were exposed to significantly lower levels of BTEX than car commuters and of NO2 than bus commuters. 

Batterman 2002 - “Levels and Composition of Volatile Organic Compounds on Commuting Routes in Detroit, Michigan”

Batterman, Stuart A; Peng, Chung-Yu; and Braun, James.
“Levels and Composition of Volatile Organic Compounds on Commuting Routes in Detroit, Michigan”
Atmospheric Environment
December 2002; v.36,n.39-40; pp.6015-6030
On the Web
Relevance: high

Batterman et al measured VOCs in cars and buses during rush hour on commercial, industrial, and residential routes in Detroit, Michigan.  They found that:

• VOC concentrations along roadways and in buses were similar;
• route did not much affect differences in air quality; however, the buses all traveled on congested 4 lane roads during rush hour; and
• VOC concentration varied significantly over time, which the authors attribute to changes in weather, mainly inversions and wind speed and direction;
• vehicle sources dominate industrial sources in influencing urban VOC concentrations, corroborating earlier studies; and
• VOC concentrations on roadways were much higher than concentrations at the two fixed-site monitoring stations in Detroit.  For example, BTEX concentrations measured at the fixed sites were 2-4 times lower than levels measured in traffic.

Harruff 1998 - “Analysis of Circumstances and Injuries in 217 Pedestrian Traffic Fatalities”

Harruff RC, Avery A, Alter-Pandya AS.
“Analysis of Circumstances and Injuries in 217 Pedestrian Traffic Fatalities”
Accident Analysis and Prevention
January 1998; v.30,n.1; pp.11-20
On the Web
Relevance: high

Harruff et al analyzed 217 pedestrian fatalities in King County, WA to describe the most common situations and characteristics of pedestrian fatalities.  The average annual pedestrian fatality rate for all pedestrians overstates the risk for responsible, able-bodied adults but understates the risk for vulnerable groups such as the elderly.  Alcohol consumption, disregard of traffic rules, and being male also increase the fatality risk.