Sprawl and Health

Frank 2006 - "Many Pathways from Land Use to Health"

Lawrence D. Frank, James F. Sallis, et al.
"Many Pathways from Land Use to Health"
Journal of the American Planning Association
72(1):75-87 (Winter 2006)
On the Web
Relevance: high

From the abstract: in King County neighborhoods and found that a 5% increase in walkability was associated with:

• a per capita 32.1% increase in time spent in physical activity
• 0.23 point reduction in average body mass index
• 6.5% fewer vehicle miles traveled
• 5.6% fewer grams of nitrogen oxides emitted
• 5.5% fewer grams of volatile organic compounds emitted

See study for more details.

Pope 2000 - "Epidemiology of Fine Particulate Air Pollution and Human Health"

Pope, C. Arden III
Epidemiology of Fine Particulate Air Pollution and Human Health: Biologic Mechanisms and Who's at Risk?
Environmental Health Perspectives Supplements
August 2000. Volume 108, Number S4, pp.713-723
On the Web
Relevance: high

Chronic exposure to fine PM has been associated with increased mortality from cardiopulmonary disease, increased chronic respiratory diseases (especially bronchitis), and reduced lung function.

Acute exposure to fine PM has been associated with increased mortality from cardiopulmonary diseases; increased hospitalizations for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, and other respiratory diseases; and increased asthma and lower respiratory symptoms.

For the mortality risk of short-term exposure, the author estimates that a 50 microgram/meter^3 increased in fine PM would result in an average of 1.7 additional deaths per day per one million people, based on the 1996 average death rate of 8.8/1000/year. He notes that this is a rather small number of deaths.

Washington Dept. of Ecology 2004 - "The Economic Benefits of Clean Air

Washington Dept. of Ecology
"The Economic Benefits of Clean Air"
Created Sept 2002, updated June 2004
Publication number 02-02-011
On the Web
Relevance: medium

The Washington State Department of Ecology says that

• “Washington citizens save over $2 billion per year in health costs because the air is cleaner now than it was in 1990.”
• “Washington businesses save at least $17 million per year because cleaner air means fewer lost workdays or lost productivity due to illness caused by air pollution, according to EPA.”
• “Based on EPA estimates of cancer risks and measured pollution levels in Washington, [levels] of 11 high risk Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs) […] may result in as many as 30 cancer cased per year in Washington that would not otherwise have occurred. The cost of medical treatment alone for these is about $3,000,000.” 

It also estimates that if central Puget Sound and Clark county returned to ozone non-attainment, it would cost businesses $253 million for required cleaner gasoline and additional pollution controls.  In central Puget Sound it would also cost consumers about $10 million a year (1 penny per gallon) for required cleaner gasoline. In addition, we would lose local control over clean air strategies.

(Note that these estimates cover all air pollution, including industrial emissions and agricultural burning.)

British Columbia 2003 - Air Quality in British Columbia, a Public Health Perspective

British Columbia Provincial Health Officer, Ministry of Health Services.
Every Breath You Take…Provincial Health Officer’s Annual Report 2003.
Air Quality in British Columbia, a Public Health Perspective.
2004 Victoria, BC
On the Web
Relevance: high

This report covers the sources, distribution, and health effects and costs of air pollution.

Sources and distribution: Air pollution is neither evenly distributed around BC nor concentrated in Vancouver. For example, Vancouver has relatively low levels of particulate matter (excluding road dust) and ozone but relatively high levels of NO2, SO2, and CO. In the Lower Fraser Valley air shed (including Whatcom County, WA):

• mobile sources (excluding marine vehicles) account for 41% of smog-forming pollutants. according to an inventory in 2000. 
• 83% of CO comes from light-duty and off-road vehicles
• light-duty vehicles are responsible for 23% of NOx, 23% of VOCs, 3% of PM2.5

Health effects. The report estimates that 712 hospital admissions and 944 emergency room visits are due to outdoor air pollution. It also very informally estimates that the health burden from outdoor air pollution costs CAN$85 million annually. Estimates of annual deaths from outdoor air pollution range widely.

• Low estimate: 82
• Low intermediate estimate: 25-250
• High intermediate estimate: 115-402
• High estimate: 644
• Estimate of delayed mortality for PM2.5: 71-110

Riediker 2004 - "Particulate Matter Exposure in Cars is Associated with Cardiovascular Effects in Healthy Young Men"

Riediker, Michael; Cascio, Wayne; et al.
"Particulate Matter Exposure in Cars is Associated with Cardiovascular Effects in Healthy Young Men"
American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine
April 15, 2004; v.168, n.8; pp.934-940
On the Web
Relevance: medium-low

Part of a larger research project measuring air quality in cars, the authors measured the effects of exposure to PM2.5 on the cardiovascular functions of nine young, healthy patrol officers in North Carolina. They concluded that in-vehicle PM2.5 negatively affected inflammation, coagulation, and cardiac rhythm in slight but significant amounts. However, they also measured PM2.5 concentrations to be lower in the vehicles than on the side of the road or at the ambient location.

This study suggests to me that even a small amount of PM2.5 from vehicles is bad.

Ebelt 2005 - "Exposure to Ambient and Nonambient Components of Particulate Matter"

Ebelt, Stefanie T; Wilson, William E; Brauer, Michael.
"Exposure to Ambient and Nonambient Components of Particulate Matter: A Comparison of Health Effects"
Epidemiology
May 2005; v.16, n.3; pp.396-405
On the Web
Relevance: medium

Intro: Using a small sample of pulmonary patients in Vancouver, the authors measured exposure to particulate matter and health effects, trying to separate out influence of ambient and nonambient particles on lung function, heart rate, and blood pressure.

Findings: They found that ambient exposure was not correlated with nonambient or personal exposure. They also found that ambient exposure was a better predictor of health effects. In contrast nonambient and personal exposures were not associated with health effects, except in the wrong direction for lung function. The authors caution that this is a small study and the results are not conclusive.

Chang 2000 - "Hourly Personal Exposures to Fine Particles and Gaseous Pollutants--Results from Baltimore, Maryland"

Chang, Li-Te; Koutrakis, Petros; et al
"Hourly Personal Exposures to Fine Particles and Gaseous Pollutants--Results from Baltimore, Maryland"
Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association
July 2000; v.50, n.7; pp.1223-1235
On the Web
Relevance: medium

The authors measured personal VOC exposure in a variety of microenvironments that older adults generally encounter. PM 2.5 concentrations were highest in the food court, while walking and driving, and in a kitchen and TV room at home. Ozone levels were elevated while walking at noon and while driving. Carbon monoxide levels were elevated i the middle of the day and while driving.

Ambient concentrations of PM 2.5 seem to be fairly well with personal exposure (r>.6 for all but one case). Ambient concentrations of ozone were also highly correlated with personal exposure for outdoor and in-vehicle microenvironments, less so for indoor environments, and barely at all for homes. There seems to be little correlation between ambient BTEX levels and personal exposures in homes and cars (except for benzene in homes), which suggests to me that personal exposure in those places comes mostly from personal activities (cooking, cleaning, and driving).

Chan 1991 - "Commuter Exposure to VOCs in Boston, Massachusetts"

Chan, Chang-Chuan; Spengler, John D; et al.
"Commuter Exposure to VOCs in Boston, Massachusetts"
Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association
December 1991; v.41, n.12; pp.1594-1600
On the Web
Relevance: high

The authors measured VOC exposure for four commuting methods (car, subway, walking, biking) plus concentrations in homes, offices, and on the sidewalk in Boston. They found that concentrations were generally highest in cars and lowest in homes/offices. "For most VOCs, the concentrations in homes and offices were about three to five times lower than the VOC concentrations during commuting." Around 10-20% of daily VOC exposure for car and subway commuters occurred during the commute.

Driving on urban roads was correlated with higher VOC concentrations (1.5 times higher) than driving on interstates.  Using the heater also increased VOC levels. On the other hand, the age of the car or country of origin (US vs. imported) did not seem to make a difference.

Riediker 2003 - "Exposure to Particulate Matter, Volatile Organic Compounds, and Other Air Pollutants Inside Patrol Cars"

Riediker, Michael; Williams, Ronald; et al.
"Exposure to Particulate Matter, Volatile Organic Compounds, and Other Air Pollutants Inside Patrol Cars"
Environmental Science and Technology
2003; v.37 n.10; pp.2084-2093
On the Web
Relevance: high

The authors measured PM and VOCs in patrol cars, roadsides, and a remote (ambient) site in North Carolina. They found that BTEX levels were significantly higher in the cars; elemental carbon levels were higher in the cars; but NO2 and PM2.5 levels were a little higher in at the ambient site; and ozone levels were nearly twice as high at the ambient site.

Larson 2004 - "Source Apportionment of Indoor, Outdoor, and Personal PM2.5 in Seattle, Washington, Using Positive Matrix Factorization"

Larson, Timothy Gould, Timothy; et al.
"Source Apportionment of Indoor, Outdoor, and Personal PM2.5 in Seattle, Washington, Using Positive Matrix Factorization"
Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association
September 2004, v.54, n.9; pp.1175-1187
On the Web
Relevance: medium

The authors measured indoor, outdoor, and personal concentrations of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in the city of Seattle and estimated the sources of this PM. They concluded that vegetative burning (wood, incense, candles) contributed the most PM mass to outdoor (35%), indoor (49%), and personal (62%) exposure. In general, it seems that PM concentrations are higher outdoors than indoors.