Sprawl and Health

Staunton 2003 - “Promoting Safe Walking and Biking to School: The Marin County Success Story”

Saunton, Catherine E.; Hubsmith, Deb; Kallins, Wendi.
“Promoting Safe Walking and Biking to School: The Marin County Success Story”
American Journal of Public Health
September 2003; v.93, n.9.; pp. 1431-1434
On the Web
Relevance: low

In 1999 Marin County residents started a program to increase the number of local children walking to school.  Over two school years participating public reported that trips by walking increased by 64%, biking by 114%, and carpooling by 91%.  Trips in which a private vehicle carried only one student decreased by 39%.

Retting 2003 - “A Review of Evidence-Based Traffic Engineering Measures Designed to Reduce Pedestrian-Motor Vehicle Crashes”

Retting, Richard A.; Ferguson, Susan A.; McCartt, Ann T.
“A Review of Evidence-Based Traffic Engineering Measures Designed to Reduce Pedestrian-Motor Vehicle Crashes”
American Journal of Public Health
September 2003; v.93, n.9.; pp. 1456-1463.
On the Web
Relevance: low

The authors reviewed studies on engineering measures used to reduce the risk of pedestrian injuries.  These measures were classified into speed control, separation of pedestrians from vehicles (in time and space), and increased visibility of pedestrians. Highly effective measures include:

• single-lane roundabouts,
• sidewalks,
• exclusive pedestrian signal phasing that stops all traffic while pedestrians cross all ways,
• pedestrian refuge islands, and,
• increased intensity of roadway lighting

Rivara 1989 - “Analysis of Fatal Pedestrian Injuries in King County, WA and Prospects for Prevention”

Rivara FP, Reay DT, Bergman AB.
“Analysis of Fatal Pedestrian Injuries in King County, WA and Prospects for Prevention”
Public Health Reports
May-June 1989; v.104, n.3; pp.293-297.
On the Web
Relevance: medium

The authors analyzed pedestrian fatalities for 12 months in King County, WA.  They found that victims were generally children (29%), the elderly (34%), or intoxicated adults (24%).

Lucy 2003 - “Mortality Risk Associated With Leaving Home: Recognizing the Relevance of the Built Environment”

Lucy, William H.
“Mortality Risk Associated With Leaving Home: Recognizing the Relevance of the Built Environment”
American Journal of Public Health
September 2003; v.93,n.9; pp.1564-1569
On the Web
Relevance: high

In looking traffic fatalities and homicides by stranger in 15 metropolitan areas, Lucy concluded that traffic fatalities pose a real danger to living in low density areas that should be balanced against the expected lower crime risk.  In short, he found that exurban areas were often more dangerous than central cities or inner suburbs, primarily due to the higher risk of traffic fatalities.  Low-density, outer counties had the most traffic fatalities and homicides by stranger while some inner suburban counties were the least dangerous areas overall.

Jacobsen 2003 - “Safety in Numbers: More Walkers and Bicyclists, Safer Walking and Bicycling”

Jacobsen, Peter Lyndon
“Safety in Numbers: More Walkers and Bicyclists, Safer Walking and Bicycling”
Injury Prevention
September 2003; v.9,n.1; pp.205-209.
One the Web
Relevance: high

Jacobsen analyzed various datasets from Europe and California to compare accident rates per capita across differing rates of walking/biking.  He found that as the rates of walking/biking increase, the total number of accidents increases as expected, but the likelihood that an individual pedestrian or cyclist will be hit by a car decreases.

Harruff 1998 - “Analysis of Circumstances and Injuries in 217 Pedestrian Traffic Fatalities”

Harruff RC, Avery A, Alter-Pandya AS.
“Analysis of Circumstances and Injuries in 217 Pedestrian Traffic Fatalities”
Accident Analysis and Prevention
January 1998; v.30,n.1; pp.11-20
On the Web
Relevance: high

Harruff et al analyzed 217 pedestrian fatalities in King County, WA to describe the most common situations and characteristics of pedestrian fatalities.  The average annual pedestrian fatality rate for all pedestrians overstates the risk for responsible, able-bodied adults but understates the risk for vulnerable groups such as the elderly.  Alcohol consumption, disregard of traffic rules, and being male also increase the fatality risk. 

Schilling 2005 - “The Public Health Roots of Zoning: In Search of Active Living’s Legal Genealogy”

Schilling, Joseph;  Linton , Leslie S.
“The Public Health Roots of Zoning: In Search of Active Living’s Legal Genealogy”
American Journal of Preventive Medicine
February 2005; v.28, n.2, Supplement 2; pp.96-104.
On the Web
Relevance: low

Schilling and Linton give a good overview of zoning, its origin in public health, and how to adapt zoning to today's public health problems.

Gordon 1999 - “Are Compact Cities a Desirable Planning Goal?”

Gordon, Peter; Richardson Harry W.
“Are Compact Cities a Desirable Planning Goal?”
Journal of the American Planning Association.
Winter 1997: v.63, n.1; pp.95-105.
On the Web
Relevance: low

Gordon and Richardson dispute the need for promoting compact development (see Ewing (1997) for a rebuttal).  They claim that standard suburban development:

• does not encroach on prime agricultural land,
• is preferred by consumers,
• is not less efficient for travel than compact development,
• does not consume more energy (and energy is not scarce),
• does not increase congestion (an may, in fact, reduce it), and
• does not increase infrastructure and public service costs.

Ewing 1997 - “Is Los Angeles-Style Sprawl Desirable?”

Ewing, Reid
“Is Los Angeles-Style Sprawl Desirable?”
Journal of American Planning Association.
Winter 1997; v.63, n.1; pp.107-126.
On the Web
Relevance: medium

In a literature review Ewing discusses the characteristics, causes, and costs of sprawl, refuting pro-sprawl arguments by Gordon and Richardson.  Causes include land market failure and housing and transportation subsidies.  Costs include longer commutes, energy consumption, air pollution, and loss of open space, among other things.  This article is a good introduction to the subject.

Saelens 2003 - “Neighborhood-Based Differences in Physical Activity: An Environment Scale Evaluation”

Saelens, Brian E.; Sallis, James F.; Black, Jennifer B.; Chen, Diana.
“Neighborhood-Based Differences in Physical Activity: An Environment Scale Evaluation”
American Journal of Public Health
September 2003; v.93, n.9.
On the Web
Relevance: high

Saelens et al conducted a small preliminary study using accelerometers and surveys to analyze how activity levels and body mass indexes differ between two neighborhoods: one with high-walkability, one with low-walkability.  They found that residents of high-walkability neighborhoods walked more for errands, engaged in more moderate to vigorous physical activity, and were less likely to be overweight.  Interestingly, this study suggests that walkability primarily affects walking for errands but not walking for exercise.