Sprawl and Health

Rajamani 2003 - "Assessing the Impact of Urban Form Measures in Nonwork Trip Mode Choice After Controlling for Demographic and Level-of Service Effects"

Jayanthi Rajamani, Chanra R.  Bhat, et al.
"Assessing the Impact of Urban Form Measures in Nonwork Trip Mode Choice After Controlling for Demographic and Level-of Service Effects"
Presented at the Transportation Research Board Annual Meeting (2003)
Session 747: Transportation and Urban Form
Wednesday, January 15, 2003, 7:30 PM - 9:30 PM, Hilton
On the Web

The abstract:
The relation between travel behavior and the local built environment has always been a contentious issue, despite several research efforts in the area. The current paper investigates the significance and explanatory power of a variety of urban form measures on nonwork activity travel mode choice. The data used for analysis is the 1995 Portland Metropolitan Activity Survey conducted by Portland Metro. The multinomial logit mode choice model results indicate that higher residential densities and mixed-uses promote walking behavior for nonwork activities.

 

Crane 1998 - "Does Neighborhood Design Influence Travel?: A Behavioral Analysis of Travel Diary and GIS Data"

Randall Crane and Richard Crepeau
"Does Neighborhood Design Influence Travel?: A Behavioral Analysis of Travel Diary and GIS Data"
Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment
3(4):225-238 (July 1998)
On the Web

 

From the abstract:
An analysis of household travel diary and GIS data for San Diego finds little role for land use in explaining travel behavior, and no evidence that the street network pattern affects either short or long non-work travel decisions. While results may vary in other areas, the empirical argument for using land use as an element of regional air quality or other environmental plans remains to be demonstrated.

(I didn't read the study intensively enough to comment, but see Cervero and Gorham (1995) for another study on Southern California.)

 

Cervero 2002 - "Built Environments and mode Choice: Toward a Normative Framework"

Robert Cervero
"Built Environments and mode Choice: Toward a Normative Framework"
Transportation Research Part D
7(4):265-284 (2002)
On the Web

From the abstract:
The analysis reveals intensities and mixtures of land use significantly influence decisions to drive-alone, share a ride, or patronize transit, while the influences of urban design tend to be more modest. Elasticities that summarize relationships are also presented...

Cervero 1995 - "Commuting in Transit Versus Automobile Neighborhoods"

Robert Cervero and Roger Gorham
"Commuting in Transit Versus Automobile Neighborhoods"
Journal of the American Planning Association
61(2):210-225 (Spring 1995)

From the abstract:
This article compares commuting characteristics of transit-oriented and auto-oriented suburban neighborhoods in the San Francisco Bay Area and in Southern California. Transit neighborhoods averaged higher densities and had more gridded street patterns compared to their nearby counterparts with auto-oriented physical designs. . . For both metropolitan areas, pedestrian modal shares and trip generation rates tended to be considerably higher in transit than in auto-oriented neighborhoods. Transit neighborhoods had decidedly higher rates of bus commuting only in the Bay Area. Islands of transit-oriented neighborhoods in a sea of freeway -oriented suburbs seem to have negligible effects on transit commuting.

Dumbaugh 2005 - "Safe Streets, Livable Streets"

Dumbaugh, Eric
"Safe Streets, Livable Streets"
Journal of the American Planning Association
Summer 2001; vol.71, n.3; pp.283-300
On the Web
Relevance: low

While conventional wisdom recommends limiting roadside hazards, such as trees, and increasing lane and shoulder width will reduce the number and severity of crashes where the driver leaves the roadway, this author posits that trees and narrow lanes encourage drivers to drive more slowly and carefully, reducing the total number of crashes.

The author cites a few studies, including on in Washington on an urban/rural arterial (HWY 99?), where the presence of trees, sign supports, and other fixed objects is associated with fewer total crashes while wider lanes and shoulders are associated with more crashes. The author then conducts his own study comparing different sections of the same roadway, finding similar results.

I'd say that the numerical results in this study are a little squishy, the they and the theory are nonetheless very compelling.

Handy 2005 - "Correlation or Causality Between the Built Environment and Travel Behavior? Evidence from Northern California"

Handy, Susan; Cao, Xinyu; Mokhtarian, Patricia
"Correlation or Causality Between the Built Environment and Travel Behavior? Evidence from Northern California"
Transportation Research Part D
November 2005; v.10, n.6; pp.427-444
On the Web
Relevance: medium

Handy et al surveyed residents of traditional and suburban neighborhoods on their travel habits, travel attitudes, perceived neighborhood attributes, and socio-economic status. They found that while residents of traditional neighborhoods drove 18% fewer miles than suburban residents, the variation in this cross-section could be better explained by differences in attitudes and SES factors than in the built environment.

When the authors separated out those who had moved in the past year for a quasi-longitudinal study, differences in the built environment (mainly in accessibility) appeared significant. The built environment seemed to affect increased walking more than decreased driving.

I'm a bit wary of the quasi-longitudinal part of this study. Why would the built environment be significant there but not in the cross-sectional analysis?

Lund 2002 - "Pedstrian Environments and Sense of Community"

Lund, Hollie
"Pedestrian Environments and Sense of Community"
Journal of Planning Education and Research   
2002 Associate of Collegiate Schools of Planning
On the Web
Relevance: medium-high

Lund's study is intended to gauge the community effects of New Urbanism-style architecture and neighborhood design. The study is conducted in two Portland neighborhoods, an inner-city neighborhood with traditional design and a modern-style suburban neighborhood (post-WWII). Researchers distributed questionaires door-to-door in the two neighborhoods using questions similar to the Nasar study. They got 57 responses (22 percent) in the traditional neighborhood and 49 (18.8 percent) in the suburban neighborhood.

The study found more sense of community in the traditional neighborhood than in the modern suburb. The most powerful subjective explanatory variable was "perception of walking"--the better that people felt about walking in the neighborhood, the higher their sense of community. Interestingly, there is one big counterpoint to this: the study found a negative correlation between destination trips (walking to the store or for other errands) and sense of community. That is, the more likely people are to walk to destinations, the lower their sense of community. Strolling trips--walking for pleasure--are positively associated with community, but destination trips are negatively associated.

One failing of this research is that the respondents are self-selected and many not be statistically accurate representations of their communities. Also, the number of respondents is relatively low and it may be difficult to obtain statistically valid results when using controls or regressions. Finally, we cannot be sure whether people's behavior and attitudes are determined by their urban environment, or whether people self-select into neighborhoods that reflect their values and preferences.

Nasar 1995 - "The Psychological Sense of Community in the Neighborhood"

Nasar, Julian
"The Psychological Sense of Community in the Neighborhood"
Journal of the American Planning Association
Spring 1995; v61, n2; pp 178-184
Relevance: high

There is more social capital--at least as conceived as neighborhood social ties--in mixed-use (and presumably higher density) communities than in single use communities. From the abstract: This paper describes the development and testing of an 11-item Likert scale of the sense of neighborhood community, using responses from 54 residents in three suburbs in Columbus, Ohio. One test of the scale with 100 residents in single-use and mixed-use areas near one another found significantly more sense of community in the mixed-use neighborhood. More sense of community emerged among married persons and couples with children as compared to singles and childless couples.

Much of this paper is devoted to justifying its research methodologies. Of particular interest is a list of 15 questions on page 181 that researchers used to ascertain neighborhood social ties. This could be of use in future primary research on social capital.

Ewing 2002 - "Measuring Sprawl and Its Impact"

Ewing, Reid; Pendall, Rolf; Chen, Don
"Measuring Sprawl and Its Impact"
Smart Growth America
2002
On the Web
Relevance: high

Ewing et al. created a sprawl index for ~83 metropolitan areas, incorporating density, land use mix, centeredness, and street accessibility. The authors also estimated the impact of sprawl on various transportation-related outcomes. They found that a higher degree of sprawl is associated with higher average vehicle ownership, daily VMT per capita, annual traffic fatality rate, and maximum ozone level; more sprawl was associated with a lower share of work trips by transit and walking. Note that, as with most sprawl studies, we can't assume a causal relationship.

Kelly-Schwartz 2004 - "Is Sprawl Unhealthy?"

Kelly-Schwartz, Alexia; Stockard, Jean, et al
"Is Sprawl Unhealthy? A Multilevel Analysis of the Relationship of Metropolitan Sprawl to the Health of Individuals"
Journal of Planning Education and Research
December 2004; v.24, n2; pp.184-196
On the Web
Relevance: high

The authors replicated and extended Ewing et al's work on the effect of sprawl on health. They compared self- and physican-rated health as well as a variety of chronic conditions across metropolitan areas while controlling for income, education, sex, etc. They found that sprawl does affect health somewhat, but in a complex way that is difficult to track.  It appears that a highly gridded street network is associated with better health while more density is associated with poorer health.  While sprawl was not significantly associated with a higher prevalence of chronic conditions, among those with those conditions, the gridded street network was associated with better health.

Handy 2002 - "How the Built Environment Affects Physical Activity: Views from Urban Planning"

Handy, Susan L.; Boarnet, Marlon G. et al
"How the Built Environment Affects Physical Activity: Views from Urban Planning"
American Journal of Preventive Medicine
August 2002; v.23, n.2 (supplement)
On the Web (pdf)
Relevance: low

The authors give a good overview of how urban planners think about how the built environment impacts physical activity, namely walking and biking.  They cover how to measure the built environment and travel behavior, how the built environment affects travel by foot differently from travel by car, and some tips on how empirically to connect the built environment to physical activity.

Giles-Corti 2005 - "How Important is Distance To, Attractiveness, and Size of Public Open Space?"

Giles-Corti, Billie; Broomhall, Melissa; et al
"How Important is Distance To, Attractiveness, and Size of Public Open Space?"
American Journal of Preventive Medicine
February 2005; vol.28, n.2 (supplement 2); pp.169-176
On the Web
Relevance: low

The authors surveyed Australian adults in Perth and used some sort of GIS to conclude that people walk more if they have more access to large, attractive public open space with facilities for multiple types of users. While access alone to open space was not significantly associated with achieving recommended levels of physical activity, access to large, attractive open space increased the likelihood of walking at least 6 times per week totaling >180 minutes by 50%.

Humpel 2004 - "Perceived Environment Attributes, Residential Location, and Walking for Particular Purposes"

Humpel, Nancy; Owen, Neville; et al.
"Perceived Environment Attributes, Residential Location, and Walking for Particular Purposes"
American Journal of Preventive Medicine
February 2004; vol.26, n.2; pp.119-125
On the Web
Relevance: medium-low

The authors conducted a survey of 400 Australian adults (mean age 60) on their walking habits and environmental perceptions. "Aesthetics, convenience of facilities, and access to services were positively associated with the neighborhood walking for men; convenience was associated with neighborhood walking for women."  People who walked more were more likely to say that weather did not influence their decision to walk.  Women were also more likely to walk if they lived near the coast.

King 2003 - "The Relationship Between Convenience of Destinations and Walking Levels in Older Women"

King, Wendy C.; Brach, Jennifer S.; et al.
"The Relationship Between Convenience of Destinations and Walking Levels in Older Women"
American Journal of Health Promotion
Sept-Oct 2003; vol.18, n.1; pp.74-82
On the Web
Relevance: medium-high

Using a small sample (149) of older women, the authors found that living within a 20 minute walk of a park; biking or walking trail; or a department, discount, or hardware store was significantly related to walking more, as objectively measured by pedometer readings.  Walking was also associated with living near more destinations and with a better neighborhood rating for walking.

Humpel 2002 - "Environmental Factors Associated with Adults' Participation in Physical Activity: A Review"

Humpel, Nancy; Owen, Neville; Leslie, Eva.
"Environmental Factors Associated with Adults' Participation in Physical Activity: A Review"
American Journal of Preventive Medicine
May 2002; vol.22, n.3; pp.188-199
On the Web
Relevance: medium-low

The authors reviewed 19 studies, finding that "accessibility, opportunities, and aesthetic attributes had significant associations with physical activities. Weather and safety showed less-strong relationships." Several of the studies focused on excercise facilities and equipments, but others looked at neighborhood attributes.

Owen 2004 - "Understanding the Environmental Influences on Walking: Review and Research Agenda"

Owen, Neville; Humpel, Nancy; et al.
"Understanding the Environmental Influences on Walking: Review and Research Agenda"
American Journal of Preventive Medicine
July 2004; vol.27, n.1; pp.67-76.
On the Web
Relevance: medium

The authors review eighteen studies and conclude that the early evidence is promising.  The studies show that aesthetic attributes, convenience of walking facilities (sidewalks, trails), accessibility of destinations, and perceptions about traffic are associated with utilitarian walking.  However, better theoretical models and more studies, especially ones that examine a causal relationship, are needed.

Frank 2001 - "The Built Environment and Human Activity Patterns"

Frank, Lawrence D; Englke, Peter O
"The Built Environment and Human Activity Patterns: Exploring the Impacts of Urban Form on Public Health"
Journal of Planning Literature
November 2001; v.17, n.2; pp.202-218
On the Web
Relevance: low

Frank and Engelke reviews current literature to explore how physical activity affects public health and how urban form affects physical activity. The article is a good introduction to the subject with references to many useful studies (also reviewed in this  lit review), but a few of which are outdated.

Berrigan 1998 - "The Association Between Urban Form and Physical Activity in US Adults"

Berrigan, David; Troiano, Richard
"The Association Between Urban Form and Physical Activity in US Adults"
American Journal of Preventive Medicine
2002; v.23, n.2S; pp.74-79
On the Web
Relevance: medium

Using data from NHANES III, the authors found that people who lived in houses built before 1946 or between 1946 and 1973 were more likely to walk regularly than were people who lived in houses built after 1973. Those living in homes built before 1946 were 1.43 times more likely and those in homes built 1946-1973 were 1.36 times more likely to walk at least a mile at least 20 times a month than were those living in homes built after 1973.

Pucher 2003 - “Promoting Safe Walking and Cycling to Improve Public Health: Lessons from The Netherlands and Germany”

Pucher, John; Dijkstra, Lewis.
“Promoting Safe Walking and Cycling to Improve Public Health: Lessons from The Netherlands and Germany.”
American Journal of Public Health
September 2003; v.93, n.9; pp.1509-1516
On the Web
Relevance: high

Pucher and Dijkstra used data from national travel and crash surveys to compute fatality trends fatality and injury rates for pedestrians and cyclists in The Netherlands, Germany, and the United States.  The authors found that Americans walked/biked far less than do Dutch and Germans but were much more likely to be killed or injured than were Dutch and German pedestrians and cyclists, both on a per-trip and per-kilometer basis.  Causes include urban design and traffic regulations.

Retting 2003 - “A Review of Evidence-Based Traffic Engineering Measures Designed to Reduce Pedestrian-Motor Vehicle Crashes”

Retting, Richard A.; Ferguson, Susan A.; McCartt, Ann T.
“A Review of Evidence-Based Traffic Engineering Measures Designed to Reduce Pedestrian-Motor Vehicle Crashes”
American Journal of Public Health
September 2003; v.93, n.9.; pp. 1456-1463.
On the Web
Relevance: low

The authors reviewed studies on engineering measures used to reduce the risk of pedestrian injuries.  These measures were classified into speed control, separation of pedestrians from vehicles (in time and space), and increased visibility of pedestrians. Highly effective measures include:

• single-lane roundabouts,
• sidewalks,
• exclusive pedestrian signal phasing that stops all traffic while pedestrians cross all ways,
• pedestrian refuge islands, and,
• increased intensity of roadway lighting

Saelens 2003 - “Neighborhood-Based Differences in Physical Activity: An Environment Scale Evaluation”

Saelens, Brian E.; Sallis, James F.; Black, Jennifer B.; Chen, Diana.
“Neighborhood-Based Differences in Physical Activity: An Environment Scale Evaluation”
American Journal of Public Health
September 2003; v.93, n.9.
On the Web
Relevance: high

Saelens et al conducted a small preliminary study using accelerometers and surveys to analyze how activity levels and body mass indexes differ between two neighborhoods: one with high-walkability, one with low-walkability.  They found that residents of high-walkability neighborhoods walked more for errands, engaged in more moderate to vigorous physical activity, and were less likely to be overweight.  Interestingly, this study suggests that walkability primarily affects walking for errands but not walking for exercise.

Giles-Corti 2003 - “Relative Influences of Individual, Social Environmental, and Physical Environmental Correlates of Walking”

Giles-Corti, Billie and Donovan, Robert J.
“Relative Influences of Individual, Social Environmental, and Physical Environmental Correlates of Walking.”
American Journal of Public Health.
September 2003; v.93, n.9; pp. 1583-1589.
On the Web
Relevance: high

Using a survey of healthy residents of Perth, Australia and an objective measure of access to places to walk, Giles-Corti and Donovan found that living on a quiet street with sidewalks, trees, and shops increased the likelihood that survey participants walked  the recommended daily amount.

Craig 2002 - “Exploring the Effect of the Environment on Physical Activity: A Study Examining Walking to Work”

Craig CS, Brownson RC, Cragg SE, Dunn AL.
“Exploring the Effect of the Environment on Physical Activity: A Study Examining Walking to Work.”
American Journal of Preventive Medicine.
August 2002; v.23,n.2S2,s.1; pp36-43.
On the Web
Relevance: medium

Craig et al combined Canadian census data (demographics and journey to work) with neighborhood observations of walkability (density, diversity, design, safety) to find that environmental factors do influence walking to work.  Urbanization had the largest effect but variety of destinations, ease of walking, and social dynamics also played a role.

Cervero 2003 - "Walking, Bicycling, and Urban Landscapes: Evidence from the San Francisco Bay Area

Cervero R and Duncan M.
“Walking, Bicycling, and Urban Landscapes: Evidence from the San Francisco Bay Area.”
American Journal of Public Health.
September 2003; v.93, n.9; pp1478-1483.
On the Web
Relevance: high

Cervero and Duncan used the 2000 Bay Area Transportation Survey, GIS, and meteorological data to determine the factors that influenced whether participants made short (<5 miles) trips by walking or biking.  The built environment (street design, mixed-use) had less influence than factors such as trip length, steep slopes, rain, nightfall, and demographics.

Brownson 2001 - "Environmental and Policy Determinants of Physical Activity in the United States

Brownson RC, Baker EA, Housemann RA, Brennan LK, Bacak SJ.
"Environmental and Policy Determinants of Physical Activity in the United States."
American Journal of Public Health
December 2001; v.91,n12; pp1995-2003.
On the Web
relevance: low

Using a telephone survey based on the BRFSS, Brownson et al asked participants about  the environmental characteristics (parks, sidewalks, traffic, gyms) near their homes that may influence their physical activity.  Participants who met the daily physical activity requirements generally lived near sidewalks, enjoyable scenery, heavy traffic, and hills, and they had access to places to exercise.

Frank 2004 - "Obesity Relationships with Community Design, Physical Activity, and Time Spent in Cars"

Lawrence D. Frank, Martin A. Anderson, Thomas L. Schmid
"Obesity Relationships with Community Design, Physical Activity, and Time Spent in Cars"
American Journal of Preventative Medicine
2004; 27(2), pp87-96

Based on a survey of 10,878 Atlanta residents taken in 2000-2002, Frank and colleagues investigated the relationships among body mass index (BMI), time spent in cars, distance walked, and built environment measures (including residential density, street connectivity, and land use mix) within a 1-km walk or drive of respondents' homes.

Adjusting for demographics, each quartile increase in land use mix was associated with a 12.2 percent reduction in the odds of being obese.  More time spent in cars increased the risk of obesity:  an additional 60 minutes per day in the car translated into an additonal 6 percent odds of being obese.  Each kilometer walked translated into a 4.8 percent reduction in the odds of being obese.

However, connectivity and residential density were not significantly related to obesity; though they were closely correlated with land use mix.

Sturm 2004 - "Suburban sprawl and physical and mental health"

R. Sturm, D.A. Cohen
“Suburban sprawl and physical and mental health”
Public Health
2004; 118; pp488-496
Relevance: high

Sturm and Cohen analyzed Healthcare for Communities phone survey data from 1998 and 2000/2001 that assessed 16 chronic physical health conditions or symptom clusters (e.g., asthma, diabetes, hypertension, arthritis, etc.) and health-related quality of life, as well as depression and anxiety.

They correlated these findings with Reid Ewing/Smart Growth America's ranking of sprawl in major US metropolitan areas.  This ranking considered residential density, land use mix, degree of centering, and street accessibility. 

The result:  an increase in sprawl from one standard deviation less to one standard deviation more than average led to 96 more chronic medical problems per 1000 residents, which is approximately similar to an aging of the population of 4 years.  No correlation was found between sprawl and mental health.

Frumkin 2003 - “Healthy Places: Exploring the Evidence”

Frumkin, Howard
“Healthy Places: Exploring the Evidence”
American Journal of Public Health
September 2003; v.93, n.9; pp1451-1456
On the web
Relevance: low

Frumkin looks at evidence supporting the importance of place and a “sense of place”. Four aspects of the built environment offer promising opportunities for health research: nature contact (e.g. trees, ponds, flowers), buildings (better building design to avoid “sick buildings”), public places (e.g. streets and sidewalks, parks and cafes, theaters and sports facilities), and urban form (design, transportation, and land use decisions at a larger scale than buildings and public places).

Semenza 2003 - "The Intersection of Urban Planning, Art, and Public Health: The Sunnyside Piazza"

Semenza, Jan C
"The Intersection of Urban Planning, Art, and Public Health: The Sunnyside Piazza"
American Journal of Public Health
September 2003, v.93, n9; pp1439-1441
On the Web
Relevance: low

In 2001 residents of the Sunnyside neighborhood in Portland, OR transformed a central intersection into the Sunnyside Piazza, a public gathering place. A small survey and observations indicate that residents of Sunnyside have higher satisfaction with their neighborhood, better sense of community, and better health than residents of adjacent neighborhoods.

Frank 2005 - "Linking Objectively Measured Physical Activity with Objectively Measured Urban Form: Findings from SMARTRAQ"

Frank, Lawrence D. PhD, Thomas L. Schmid PhD, James F. Sallis PhD, James Chapman MS, and Brian E. Saelens PhD
“Linking Objectively Measured Physical Activity with Objectively Measured Urban Form: Findings from SMARTRAQ”
American Journal of Preventative Medicine
2005:28(2S2)
On the web
Relevance: high

Frank et al compared objective measures of neighborhood walkability (including street connectivity, land use mix, and residential density within a half-mile walk of each participant's home) with objective measures of physical activity (2 days with an accelerometer that measured walking and other physical activity) for 357 residents of Atlanta. 

People who lived in more walkable neighborhoods were more likely to get at least 30 minutes of moderate physical activity per day.

Cervero 2003 - “Walking, bicycling, and urban landscapes: Evidence from the San Francisco Bay Area”

Cervero, Robert, PhD; Michael Duncan, MCP
“Walking, bicycling, and urban landscapes: Evidence from the San Francisco Bay Area”
American Journal of Public Health
Sep 2003; v.93, n.9; pp. 1478-1483
On the web
Relevance: Medium

For trips of 5 miles or less in San Francisco, the built environment did influence travel mode (driving vs. biking vs. walking). But the influence was weak. Other factors, such as trip distance, steepness of slope, rainfall, nightfall, gender, race, purpose of trip, number of vehicles in household, and so on, had greater effects on mode choice. Thus, the built environment had a "modest and sometimes statistically insignficant effect on walking and biking."