Sprawl and Health

Frank 2006 - "Many Pathways from Land Use to Health"

Lawrence D. Frank, James F. Sallis, et al.
"Many Pathways from Land Use to Health"
Journal of the American Planning Association
72(1):75-87 (Winter 2006)
On the Web
Relevance: high

From the abstract: in King County neighborhoods and found that a 5% increase in walkability was associated with:

• a per capita 32.1% increase in time spent in physical activity
• 0.23 point reduction in average body mass index
• 6.5% fewer vehicle miles traveled
• 5.6% fewer grams of nitrogen oxides emitted
• 5.5% fewer grams of volatile organic compounds emitted

See study for more details.

Pope 2000 - "Epidemiology of Fine Particulate Air Pollution and Human Health"

Pope, C. Arden III
Epidemiology of Fine Particulate Air Pollution and Human Health: Biologic Mechanisms and Who's at Risk?
Environmental Health Perspectives Supplements
August 2000. Volume 108, Number S4, pp.713-723
On the Web
Relevance: high

Chronic exposure to fine PM has been associated with increased mortality from cardiopulmonary disease, increased chronic respiratory diseases (especially bronchitis), and reduced lung function.

Acute exposure to fine PM has been associated with increased mortality from cardiopulmonary diseases; increased hospitalizations for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, and other respiratory diseases; and increased asthma and lower respiratory symptoms.

For the mortality risk of short-term exposure, the author estimates that a 50 microgram/meter^3 increased in fine PM would result in an average of 1.7 additional deaths per day per one million people, based on the 1996 average death rate of 8.8/1000/year. He notes that this is a rather small number of deaths.

Washington Dept. of Ecology 2004 - "The Economic Benefits of Clean Air

Washington Dept. of Ecology
"The Economic Benefits of Clean Air"
Created Sept 2002, updated June 2004
Publication number 02-02-011
On the Web
Relevance: medium

The Washington State Department of Ecology says that

• “Washington citizens save over $2 billion per year in health costs because the air is cleaner now than it was in 1990.”
• “Washington businesses save at least $17 million per year because cleaner air means fewer lost workdays or lost productivity due to illness caused by air pollution, according to EPA.”
• “Based on EPA estimates of cancer risks and measured pollution levels in Washington, [levels] of 11 high risk Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs) […] may result in as many as 30 cancer cased per year in Washington that would not otherwise have occurred. The cost of medical treatment alone for these is about $3,000,000.” 

It also estimates that if central Puget Sound and Clark county returned to ozone non-attainment, it would cost businesses $253 million for required cleaner gasoline and additional pollution controls.  In central Puget Sound it would also cost consumers about $10 million a year (1 penny per gallon) for required cleaner gasoline. In addition, we would lose local control over clean air strategies.

(Note that these estimates cover all air pollution, including industrial emissions and agricultural burning.)

British Columbia 2003 - Air Quality in British Columbia, a Public Health Perspective

British Columbia Provincial Health Officer, Ministry of Health Services.
Every Breath You Take…Provincial Health Officer’s Annual Report 2003.
Air Quality in British Columbia, a Public Health Perspective.
2004 Victoria, BC
On the Web
Relevance: high

This report covers the sources, distribution, and health effects and costs of air pollution.

Sources and distribution: Air pollution is neither evenly distributed around BC nor concentrated in Vancouver. For example, Vancouver has relatively low levels of particulate matter (excluding road dust) and ozone but relatively high levels of NO2, SO2, and CO. In the Lower Fraser Valley air shed (including Whatcom County, WA):

• mobile sources (excluding marine vehicles) account for 41% of smog-forming pollutants. according to an inventory in 2000. 
• 83% of CO comes from light-duty and off-road vehicles
• light-duty vehicles are responsible for 23% of NOx, 23% of VOCs, 3% of PM2.5

Health effects. The report estimates that 712 hospital admissions and 944 emergency room visits are due to outdoor air pollution. It also very informally estimates that the health burden from outdoor air pollution costs CAN$85 million annually. Estimates of annual deaths from outdoor air pollution range widely.

• Low estimate: 82
• Low intermediate estimate: 25-250
• High intermediate estimate: 115-402
• High estimate: 644
• Estimate of delayed mortality for PM2.5: 71-110

Riediker 2004 - "Particulate Matter Exposure in Cars is Associated with Cardiovascular Effects in Healthy Young Men"

Riediker, Michael; Cascio, Wayne; et al.
"Particulate Matter Exposure in Cars is Associated with Cardiovascular Effects in Healthy Young Men"
American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine
April 15, 2004; v.168, n.8; pp.934-940
On the Web
Relevance: medium-low

Part of a larger research project measuring air quality in cars, the authors measured the effects of exposure to PM2.5 on the cardiovascular functions of nine young, healthy patrol officers in North Carolina. They concluded that in-vehicle PM2.5 negatively affected inflammation, coagulation, and cardiac rhythm in slight but significant amounts. However, they also measured PM2.5 concentrations to be lower in the vehicles than on the side of the road or at the ambient location.

This study suggests to me that even a small amount of PM2.5 from vehicles is bad.

Ebelt 2005 - "Exposure to Ambient and Nonambient Components of Particulate Matter"

Ebelt, Stefanie T; Wilson, William E; Brauer, Michael.
"Exposure to Ambient and Nonambient Components of Particulate Matter: A Comparison of Health Effects"
Epidemiology
May 2005; v.16, n.3; pp.396-405
On the Web
Relevance: medium

Intro: Using a small sample of pulmonary patients in Vancouver, the authors measured exposure to particulate matter and health effects, trying to separate out influence of ambient and nonambient particles on lung function, heart rate, and blood pressure.

Findings: They found that ambient exposure was not correlated with nonambient or personal exposure. They also found that ambient exposure was a better predictor of health effects. In contrast nonambient and personal exposures were not associated with health effects, except in the wrong direction for lung function. The authors caution that this is a small study and the results are not conclusive.

Chang 2000 - "Hourly Personal Exposures to Fine Particles and Gaseous Pollutants--Results from Baltimore, Maryland"

Chang, Li-Te; Koutrakis, Petros; et al
"Hourly Personal Exposures to Fine Particles and Gaseous Pollutants--Results from Baltimore, Maryland"
Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association
July 2000; v.50, n.7; pp.1223-1235
On the Web
Relevance: medium

The authors measured personal VOC exposure in a variety of microenvironments that older adults generally encounter. PM 2.5 concentrations were highest in the food court, while walking and driving, and in a kitchen and TV room at home. Ozone levels were elevated while walking at noon and while driving. Carbon monoxide levels were elevated i the middle of the day and while driving.

Ambient concentrations of PM 2.5 seem to be fairly well with personal exposure (r>.6 for all but one case). Ambient concentrations of ozone were also highly correlated with personal exposure for outdoor and in-vehicle microenvironments, less so for indoor environments, and barely at all for homes. There seems to be little correlation between ambient BTEX levels and personal exposures in homes and cars (except for benzene in homes), which suggests to me that personal exposure in those places comes mostly from personal activities (cooking, cleaning, and driving).

Chan 1991 - "Commuter Exposure to VOCs in Boston, Massachusetts"

Chan, Chang-Chuan; Spengler, John D; et al.
"Commuter Exposure to VOCs in Boston, Massachusetts"
Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association
December 1991; v.41, n.12; pp.1594-1600
On the Web
Relevance: high

The authors measured VOC exposure for four commuting methods (car, subway, walking, biking) plus concentrations in homes, offices, and on the sidewalk in Boston. They found that concentrations were generally highest in cars and lowest in homes/offices. "For most VOCs, the concentrations in homes and offices were about three to five times lower than the VOC concentrations during commuting." Around 10-20% of daily VOC exposure for car and subway commuters occurred during the commute.

Driving on urban roads was correlated with higher VOC concentrations (1.5 times higher) than driving on interstates.  Using the heater also increased VOC levels. On the other hand, the age of the car or country of origin (US vs. imported) did not seem to make a difference.

Riediker 2003 - "Exposure to Particulate Matter, Volatile Organic Compounds, and Other Air Pollutants Inside Patrol Cars"

Riediker, Michael; Williams, Ronald; et al.
"Exposure to Particulate Matter, Volatile Organic Compounds, and Other Air Pollutants Inside Patrol Cars"
Environmental Science and Technology
2003; v.37 n.10; pp.2084-2093
On the Web
Relevance: high

The authors measured PM and VOCs in patrol cars, roadsides, and a remote (ambient) site in North Carolina. They found that BTEX levels were significantly higher in the cars; elemental carbon levels were higher in the cars; but NO2 and PM2.5 levels were a little higher in at the ambient site; and ozone levels were nearly twice as high at the ambient site.

Larson 2004 - "Source Apportionment of Indoor, Outdoor, and Personal PM2.5 in Seattle, Washington, Using Positive Matrix Factorization"

Larson, Timothy Gould, Timothy; et al.
"Source Apportionment of Indoor, Outdoor, and Personal PM2.5 in Seattle, Washington, Using Positive Matrix Factorization"
Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association
September 2004, v.54, n.9; pp.1175-1187
On the Web
Relevance: medium

The authors measured indoor, outdoor, and personal concentrations of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in the city of Seattle and estimated the sources of this PM. They concluded that vegetative burning (wood, incense, candles) contributed the most PM mass to outdoor (35%), indoor (49%), and personal (62%) exposure. In general, it seems that PM concentrations are higher outdoors than indoors.

Payne-Sturges 2004 - "Personal Exposure Meets Risk Assessment: A Comparison of Measured and Modeled Exposure and Risks in an Urban Community"

Payne-Sturges, Devon C; Burke, Thomas A.; et al.
"Personal Exposure Meets Risk Assessment: A Comparison of Measured and Modeled Exposure and Risks in an Urban Community"
Environmental Health Perspectives
April 2004; v.112, n.5; pp.589-598
On the Web
Relevance: low

The authors measured personal exposure, indoor concentrations, and outdoor concentrations of VOCs in South Baltimore, an area near chemical industries and an interstate highway. They found that personal exposure was generally higher than indoor concentrations, which were higher than outdoor concentrations. The authors report these concentrations and the associated cancer risks. Their main goal was to compare their measured estimates to estimates from the ASPEN model.

Levy 2000 - "Particle Concentrations in Urban Microenvironments"

Levy, Jonathan I; Houseman, E. Andres; et al.
"Particle Concentrations in Urban Microenvironments"
Environmental Health Perspectives
November 2000; v.108, n.11; pp.1051-1057.
On the Web
Relevance: medium

The authors measured particulate matter indoors and outdoors in seven microenvironments (subway, bus, restaurant, hospital, gymnasium, museum, store) in Boston. Particle counts for PM 0.3-0.5 were generally higher inside the subway and bus than outdoors, but lower inside the store, hospital, and museum. Particle counts overall were higher inside the subway and bus than outside.

Wong 2004 - "Assessing the Health Benefits of Air Pollution Reduction for Children"

Wong, Eva Y; Gohlke, Julia; et al.
"Assessing the Health Benefits of Air Pollution Reduction for Children"
Environmental Health Perspectives
February 2004; v.112, n.2; pp.226-232
On the Web
Relevance: low

The authors estimated the health and economic benefits to children of reductions in criteria air pollutants (except lead) due to the Clean Air Act from 1990 to 2010. They estimated a savings of $1-2 billion from fewer hospitalizations, emergency room visits, school absences, and low birth weight. The also estimated a savings of $0.6-$100 billion from decreased mortality.

PSCAA 2003 - "Final Report: Puget Sound Air Toxics Evaluation"

Keill, Leslie; Maykut, Naydene
"Final Report: Puget Sound Air Toxics Evaluation"
Puget Sound Clean Air Agency and Washington State Department of Ecology
October 2003
On the Web
Relevance: high

In this preliminary study, PSCAA measured and modeled exposure to outdoor air toxics in 6 locations around western King County, including Beacon Hill, Lake Sammamish, and Seatac. They estimated cancer risk using several methods, including one that takes into account commuting. They also seem to suggest that it may not matter much what macroenvironment you live in (i.e., Beacon Hill vs. Lake Sammammish): "Concentrations, and corresponding risks, were relatively consistent among areas measured and modeled throughout the Puget Sound region. Although some differences were apparent, overall it is clear that the sites and the region as a whole have similar emission sources of concern (e.g., diesel particulate matter, mobile-source-related VOCs, and probably woodsmoke)." Smaller geographical scale factors (busy road, factory, cleaning products) are not accounted for.

Davies 2005 - "Economic Costs of Diseases and Disabilities Attributable to Environmental Contaminants in Washington State"

Davies, Kate; Hauge, Dietrich.
"Economic Costs of Diseases and Disabilities Attributable to Environmental Contaminants in Washington State"
Collaborative for Health and Environment-Washington Research and Information Working Group
July 2005
On the Web
Relevance: low

The authors estimated the health costs attributable to environmental contaminants in Washington (for selected diseases) by applying national and other state studies to Washington's population. They use national estimates of the Environmentally Attributable Fraction Range (EAFR) of diseases due to contaminants, disease and population rates for Washington, and disease cost estimates. They conclude that the total cost is $1.8 billion (2004$) for children and $2.7 billion for adults and children.

Unfortunately, this study does not really estimate the costs for Washington, but rather Washington's likely share of national costs because the study uses national attribution rates rather than WA specific ones.  For example, it may be that a higher or lower fraction of asthma in WA is due to environmental contaminants.

Sexton 2004 - "Comparison of Personal, Indoor, and Outdoor Exposures to Hazardous Air Pollutants in Three Urban Communities"

Sexton, Ken; Adgate, John L; et al.
"Comparison of Personal, Indoor, and Outdoor Exposures to Hazardous Air Pollutants in Three Urban Communities"
Environmental Science and Technology
2004; v.38, n.2; pp.423-430
On the Web
Relevance: high

The authors measure personal, indoor, and outdoor exposures to 15 VOCs in three different neighborhoods of Minneapolis/St. Paul, MN. They found that outdoor community air monitors greatly underestimate personal exposures and that even indoor monitors underestimate personal exposure. For example, for benzene, the personal/outdoor (P/O) ratio of estimated relative concentrations is 6.8, while the personal/indoor concentration (P/I) is 1.6.

Marshall 2005 - "Inhalation of Motor Vehicles Emissions: Effects of Urban Population and Land Area"

Marshall, Julian D; McKone, Thomas E; et al
"Inhalation of Motor Vehicles Emissions: Effects of Urban Population and Land Area"
Atmospheric Environment
January 2005; v.39, n.2; pp.283-295
On the Web
Relevance: low

The authors developed a preliminary, theoretical model of how air quality is affected by different development patters: sprawl, infill, and constant-density growth. Their conclusions depend on the elasticity of emissions: how big a change in emissions is cause by a change in density. If emissions decrease greatly from increased density, then infill is best.  If emissions decrease by only a little, then constant density growth is best.

Leung 1998 - "Evaluation of Personal Exposure to Monoaromatic Hydrocarbons"

Leung, Pei-Ling; Harrison, Roy M
"Evaluation of Personal Exposure to Monoaromatic Hydrocarbons"
Occupational and Environmental Medicine
April 1998; v.55, n.4; pp. 249-257
On the Web
Relevance: high

The authors measured the exposure of 50 volunteers in the UK to various monoaromatic hydrocarbons (MAHs) over the course of 12 hour days. They found that urban volunteers were exposed to more MAHs than non-urban volunteers. Most of the total exposure is from the home, despite low concentrations, due to the vast amount of time spent there. Although little time is spent driving, the high concentration of MAHs in vehicles made it a noticeable contributor for office workers (5% of total exposure) 

Allen 2004 - "Estimated Hourly Personal Exposures to Ambient and Nonambient Particulate Matter Among Sensitive Populations in Seattle"

Allen, Ryan; Wallace, Lance; et al.
"Estimated Hourly Personal Exposures to Ambient and Nonambient Particulate Matter Among Sensitive Populations in Seattle"
Journal of Air and Waste Management
September 2004; v.54; n.9; pp.1197-1411
On the Web
Relevance: High

The authors measured the concentration of particulate matter in various mircoenvironments (home indoors, home outdoors, work, school, in transit, other outdoors, other indoors) and the average exposure for 38 subjects in Seattle. The subjects selected were "sensetive populations" with asthma, coronary heart disease, or advanced age. The major findings were:

• The best air was indoors at home; the worst air was at work, followed by outdoors and in transit.
• Because subjects spend so much time at home, most of their exposure (79%) occured there.
• There was a low correlation between ambient and personal exposures (0.43) compared to findings from other studies. This means that localized sources highly affect personal exposure (i.e. cooking fumes vs.general air quality)

Kingham 1998 - "Assessment of Exposure to Traffic-Related Fumes During the Journey to Work"

Kingham, Simon; Meaton, Julia; et al.
"Assessment of Exposure to Traffic-Related Fumes During the Journey to Work"
Transportation Research, Part D
July 1998; v.3, n.4; pp.271-274
On the Web
Relevance: medium-low

In a pilot study, the authors measured commuter's exposure to benzene and particulates using different modes (car, bus, train, road cyclist, path cyclist) but along similar routes(?). Findings include:

• The car driver had the highest mean exposure to benzene (108.3 micrograms/m^3) a factor of at least 4 and also the highest mean exposure to particulates (7.6 absorbance), but by a much smaller margin.
• Train riders had the lowest benzene exposure (12.9) and path cyclists had the lowest particulate exposure (2.7).
• The bus was slightly better than the road bike
• The exposure ratios for the car driver to the road cyclist were 4.05 for benzene and 1.26 for particulates.
• The exposure ratios for the road cyclist to the path cyclist were 1.73 for benzene and 2.41 for particulates.

Adams 2002 - "Assessment of Road Users' Elemental Carbon Personal Exposure Levels, London, UK"

Adams, HS; Nieuwenhuijsen, MJ; Colvile, RN.
"Assessment of Road Users' Elemental Carbon Personal Exposure Levels, London, UK"
Atmospheric Environment
November 2002; v.36, n.34; pp.5335-5342
On the Web
Relevance: low

The authors measured exposure to elemental carbon (EC) a component of diesel exhaust, along various routes, using different modes, and in summer vs. winter.  They found that exposure levels were higher:

• for cars, followed by buses and bicycles (cyclists may have lower exposure because they don't get stuck in traffic and keep "away from the central road 'tunnel of pollution'.";
• along the most congested central route, perhaps due to higher traffic density and a street canyon effect;
• in winter, perhaps due to colder engines and more stable meteorological conditions.

Fruin 2004 - "Black Carbon Concentrations in California Vehicles and Estimation of In-Vehicle Diesel Exhaust Particulate Matter Exposures"

Fruin, Scott A; Winer, Arthur M; Rodes, Charles E.
"Black Carbon Concentrations in California Vehicles and Estimation of In-Vehicle Diesel Exhaust Particulate Matter Exposures"
Atmospheric Environment
August 2004; v.38, n.25; pp.4123-4133
On the Web
Relevance: low

The authors measured black carbon (BC) concentrations inside vehicles driven around LA and Sacramento. BC is typically associated with diesel emissions. The authors found that the most important predictor of in-vehicles BC concentrations was the type of vehicle followed, with diesel buses and delivery trucks that had ground-level exhaust pipes being the worst. Following a gasoline powered car did not increase BC concentrations.

The authors also estimate daily exposure to diesel particulate matter (DPM), concluding that compared to earlier models, "in-vehicle DPM exposures appear to make very significant contributions to overall DPM exposures, randing from approximately 30-55% of total DPM exposure on a statewide, population basis.  Thus the in-vehicle microenvironment may be the most important route of overall DPM exposure, though only 1.5h day-1 is spend there, on average."

Friedman 2001 - "Impact of Changes in Transportation and Commuting Behaviors During the 1996 Summer Olympic Games in Atlanta on Air Quality and Childhood Asthma"

Friedman, Michael S; Powell, Kenneth E; et al.
"Impact of Changes in Transportation and Commuting Behaviors During the 1996 Summer Olympic Games in Atlanta on Air Quality and Childhood Asthma"
Journal of the American Medical Association
February 21, 2001; vol.285, n.7; pp.897-905.
On the Web
Relevance: low

The authors compared the level of air pollution and asthma events during the Atlanta Olympics to levels just before and after. They found that ozone levels and asthma events were lower during the Oympics, likely due to changes in traffic patterns. The number of asthma acute care events decreased 41.6% in the Georgia Medicaid claims file.  Organizers increased public transportation, closed the downtown to cars, encouraged workers to change work hours, and made other adjustments. There are several caveats to this study, so we may not want to quote it alone, but it could be one building block of the case.

Adams 2001 - "Determinants of Fine Particle (PM2.5) Personal Exposure Levels in Transport Microenvironments, London, UK"

Adams, HS; Nieuwenhuijsen, MJ; Colvile, RN
"Determinants of Fine Particle (PM2.5) Personal Exposure Levels in Transport Microenvironments, London, UK"
Atmospheric Environment
September 2001 v.35, n.27; pp.4557-4566
On the Web
Relevance: medium-low

The authors measured concentrations of fine PM on fixed routes using different modes (car, bus, bicycle) in London. They found that route was a significant factor, explaining 20% of the variation, but mode was not. Wind speed explained 18% of the variation. "Personal exposure levels were reasonable correlated with urban background FSM [fixed site monitor] concentrations."

CARB 1998 - "Measuring Concentrations of Selected Air Pollutants Inside California Vehicles"

California Air Resources Board (CARB)
"Measuring Concentrations of Selected Air Pollutants Inside California Vehicles"
December 1998, Contract No. 95-339, Final Report
On the Web
Relevance: medium-low

CARB measured concentrations of various air pollutants inside vehicles as a range-finding experiment. They studied the effect of freeway conditions (rush vs. non-rush), roadway types, vehicle types, air vent settings, time of day, and roadside/ambient air quality.

CARB found that pollutant concentrations were higher:

• in the regular vs. carpool lane
• during rush hour
• when following diesel or other high-emitting vehicles

Other findings include:

• Vent settings and vehicle type did not seem to make a big difference
• "Most pollutants levels, especially the VOC's, were elevated inside and outside the vehicles relative to either the roadside or ambient station concentrations"
• "Particle concentrations were typically significantly higher outside the vehicles than inside, presumably due to losses in the vehicle ventilation systems (and other factors) - while significant differences were not observed between inside and outside levels of gas phase pollutants for the same vehicle."

CAVEAT: this was a preliminary, range-finding study, so we should look at other studies for confirmation and hard numbers.

Rank 2001 - "Differences in Cyclists and Car Drivers Exposure to Air Pollution from Traffic in the City of Copenhagen"

Rank, Jette; Folke, Jens; Jespersen, Per Homann
"Differences in Cyclists and Car Drivers Exposure to Air Pollution from Traffic in the City of Copenhagen"
The Science of the Total Environment
2001; v.279; pp.131-136.
On the Web
Relevance: medium-high

The authors equipt two cyclists and two car drivers with air samplers for 4 hours at a time on 2 days. They found "The concentrations of particles and BTEX in the cabin of the cars were 2-4 times greater than in the cyclists' breathing zone, the greatest difference being for BTEX. Therefore, even after taking the increased respiration rate of cyclists into consideration, car drivers seem tot be more exposed to airborne pollution than cyclists.

Car/bicycle ratio

• Benzene: 2.8
• Toluene: 3.4
• Thylbenzene and Xylenes: 3.7
• Hydrocarbons: 3.7
• Particles (total dust):1.7.

Ewing 2002 - "Measuring Sprawl and Its Impact"

Ewing, Reid; Pendall, Rolf; Chen, Don
"Measuring Sprawl and Its Impact"
Smart Growth America
2002
On the Web
Relevance: high

Ewing et al. created a sprawl index for ~83 metropolitan areas, incorporating density, land use mix, centeredness, and street accessibility. The authors also estimated the impact of sprawl on various transportation-related outcomes. They found that a higher degree of sprawl is associated with higher average vehicle ownership, daily VMT per capita, annual traffic fatality rate, and maximum ozone level; more sprawl was associated with a lower share of work trips by transit and walking. Note that, as with most sprawl studies, we can't assume a causal relationship.

ICTA 2000 - “In-Car Air Pollution: The Hidden Threat to Automobile Drivers"

International Center for Technology Assessment,
“In-Car Air Pollution: The Hidden Threat to Automobile Drivers"
Report No. 4, An Assessment of the Air Quality Inside Automobile Passenger Compartments
Washington, DC: July 2000
On the Web
Relevance: high

This report reviews 23 studies from between 1982 and 1998 covering the main pollutants inside cars: particulate matter, volatile organic compounds, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and ozone.  For all exhaust pollutants except CO and the largest PM, concentrations are typically higher inside cars in heavy traffic than elsewhere.

Batterman 2002 - “Levels and Composition of Volatile Organic Compounds on Commuting Routes in Detroit, Michigan”

Batterman, Stuart A; Peng, Chung-Yu; and Braun, James.
“Levels and Composition of Volatile Organic Compounds on Commuting Routes in Detroit, Michigan”
Atmospheric Environment
December 2002; v.36,n.39-40; pp.6015-6030
On the Web
Relevance: high

Batterman et al measured VOCs in cars and buses during rush hour on commercial, industrial, and residential routes in Detroit, Michigan.  They found that:

• VOC concentrations along roadways and in buses were similar;
• route did not much affect differences in air quality; however, the buses all traveled on congested 4 lane roads during rush hour; and
• VOC concentration varied significantly over time, which the authors attribute to changes in weather, mainly inversions and wind speed and direction;
• vehicle sources dominate industrial sources in influencing urban VOC concentrations, corroborating earlier studies; and
• VOC concentrations on roadways were much higher than concentrations at the two fixed-site monitoring stations in Detroit.  For example, BTEX concentrations measured at the fixed sites were 2-4 times lower than levels measured in traffic.

Kim 2001 - “Concentrations and Sources of VOCs in Urban Domestic and Public Microenvironments”

Kim, Young Min; Harrad, Stuart; Harrison, Roy M.
“Concentrations and Sources of VOCs in Urban Domestic and Public Microenvironments”
Environmental Science and Technology
March 15, 2001; v.35, n.6; pp.997-1004
On the Web
Relevance: high

Concentrations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were measured in a wide range of urban microenvironments (including homes, offices, shops, roadsides, buses, trains, and cars) in Birmingham, UK.  Of transportation microenvironments, cars had the highest mean concentrations of most of the VOCs measured; however the automobiles in the study were over 10 years old and smoking occurred in 6 of them during sampling.

Kim 2002 - “Levels and Sources of Personal Inhalation Exposure to Volatile Organic Compounds”

Kim, Young Min; Harrad, Stuart; Harrison, Roy M.
“Levels and Sources of Personal Inhalation Exposure to Volatile Organic Compounds” Environmental Science and Technology
December 15, 2002; v.36,n.24; pp.5405-5410
On the Web
Relevance: medium

Personal exposures to VOCs of 12 urban dwellers (Birmingham, UK) were measured over 5-10 days.  Exposure in the home contributed 50-80% of overall individual exposure to 2 main VOCs, mostly due to the large amount of time spent at home.  Smoking, vehicle use, and heating also contributed noticeably to personal exposure to VOCs.